启蒙运动与百科全书

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The Enlightment and the Encyclopedia
               
启蒙运动(The Enlightenment)按其字面意思是为黑暗笼罩的地方带去光明。启蒙运动在18世纪中期最早在法国，继而在德国如火如荼地开展开来。百科全书(Encyclopedia, or a systematic dictionary of the sciences, arts, and crafts)是18世纪启蒙运动的象征，一部多卷本（28卷对开本，71818条目，2885幅图版）的畅销图书成为传播启蒙运动思想的最好载体。把当时全部知识（科学、神学、哲学的等等，狄德罗百科全书给出的分类知识树）汇编为一部以字母顺序排列的多卷本图书，并大量出版发行，这本身就是出版史上的一个里程碑事件，从某种角度可说是整理人类有史以来全部信息Google的精神鼻祖。百科全书的主编是大名鼎鼎的狄德罗（1713-1784），副主编是数学家达朗贝尔（1717-1783）。参与的人物很多都是18世纪法国学术界的著名人物（see contributors），比如：伏尔泰、霍尔巴赫、卢梭等。百科全书的编者们还经常引用孟德斯鸠(1685-1755)和布丰的作品，虽然这两位并未直接为百科全书写过什么。启蒙运动的思想家们大多都是崇英分子，他们羡慕英国在科学上的成就和先进的政治制度（摆脱了君权神授的君主立宪制度）。
在达朗贝尔为百科全书所写的绪论中，他宣称：知识来自理性，而不是来自罗马教廷或《启示录》，伟大的秩序化力量是理性，它和记忆、想像等共同发挥作用。所以人们所了解的事情都来自周围的世界以及他自己头脑的活动（狄德罗百科全书绪论）。达朗贝尔和狄德罗把百科全书即当作知识的汇编，又作为哲学的宣言，宣告牛顿和洛克时代的来临。


狄德罗百科全书的版本情况：

[li]巴黎对开本（1751-1772）：17卷文字，11卷图版，计划印量：4225部，订价最初为280里佛，最终涨到980里佛。增补卷：4卷文字，1卷图版（1776，1777年印刷）； [/li][li]日内瓦对开本（1771-1776）：第一版的再版，印量：2150部，订价：840里佛，但到1777年，由于更便宜的四开本的竞争，价格降低到700里佛甚至更低。 [/li][li]卢卡对开本（1758-1776）：大概印了1500部，价格约为737里佛。卢卡共和国的盗版，因此法国的出版商试图将其拒于法国之外。 [/li][li]里窝那对开本（1770-1778）：最后一个再版本，印数为1500部，价格仅为574里佛。 [/li][li]日内瓦和纳沙泰尔四开本（1777-1779）：包括36卷文字和3卷图版，订价为384里佛。由于受到更便宜的八开本的竞争，1781年价格降为240里佛。四开本共印8525部，但由于大量的损坏，最后仅8011部完整的四开本供销售。 [/li][li]洛桑和伯尔尼的八开本（1778-1782）：印数为5500-6000部，订价为225里佛；包括36卷文字，3卷图版。 [/li]

1789年法国大革命以前，所有出版商一共印制了大约24000部狄德罗百科全书。至少11500部到了法国读者的手上，其中7257部为四开本。
此外还有在狄德罗百科全书基础上修订、扩充的：

[li]《伊韦尔东版百科全书》 （1770-1780）：1600部； [/li][li]《方法百科全书》       （1782-1832）：5000部；102分册共337编，四开本166卷半文字，和包含6439幅图版的51编组成。 [/li]

《方法百科全书》的编者是出版商庞库克，他同时也是销量最大的四开本狄德罗百科全书的出版商。庞库克的百科全书更加专业化，他设想把百科全书编成26种“分学科百科全书”，每种“分百科全书”自身是按字母顺序排列的。根据庞库克在1791年的计划，全书共125又1/2卷，其中科技：50%，人文：25%，社科：13%，其他：12%。

[li]自然史 9卷 [/li][li]医学 8卷 [/li][li]法学 8卷 [/li][li]艺术和工艺 8卷 [/li][li]植物学 5卷 [/li][li]古代文化、神话 5卷 [/li][li]历史 5卷 [/li][li]形而上学、逻辑、伦理和教育 4卷 [/li][li]政治经济和外交 4卷 [/li][li]军事艺术 4卷 [/li][li]建筑 4卷 [/li][li]国民议会 4卷 [/li][li]数学 3卷 [/li][li]化学、冶金、药剂学 3卷 [/li][li]农业 3卷 [/li][li]地理和古代历史 3卷 [/li][li]近代地理 3卷 [/li][li]神学 3卷 [/li][li]哲学 3卷 [/li][li]语法、文学 3卷 [/li][li]财政 3卷 [/li][li]商业 3卷 [/li][li]航海 3卷 [/li][li]制造 3卷 [/li][li]物理 2卷 [/li][li]解剖学 2卷 [/li][li]外科学 2卷 [/li][li]树木和森林 2卷 [/li][li]警察、市政 2卷 [/li][li]美术 2卷 [/li][li]音乐 2卷 [/li][li]矿物 1卷 [/li][li]自然地理 1卷 [/li][li]火炮 1卷 [/li][li]桥梁和公路 1卷 [/li][li]犬猎、狩猎、钓鱼 1卷 [/li][li]百科全书 1卷 [/li][li]数学和物理游戏 1卷 [/li][li]专门艺术 1/2卷 [/li]

庞库克的撰稿人中学者的比例大幅度提高，比如：植物学家撰写植物学的内容并且自己也以植物学谋生，文人就撰写文学方面的内容并靠文学为生。这反映了自牛顿和洛克之后，学科发展更成熟，学科领域更清晰，学术问题更具体，知识被分成不同的领域，每个领域都形成专门的学术圈子并有几位专家居于支配地位。庞库克百科全书的编撰者就是这些专家，比如：蒙日、拉马克、拉朗德、德·莫尔沃、富克鲁瓦等。
1789年前后，和狄德罗百科全书共同成长起来的法国科学家：拉格朗日(1735-1813)、拉瓦锡(1743-1794)、拉普拉斯(1749—1827)等是当时世界上最杰出的科学家。
参考

[li]Answers: The Enlightment [/li][li]Answers: Encyclopédie [/li][li]Answers: French Encyclopédistes [/li][li]若古爵士（Louis de Jaucourt），狄德罗百科全书的最多词条贡献者（全部的1/4），并且完全是义务的。 [/li][li]生意就是生意，即使它关乎启蒙 [/li][li]英国的经验主义 [/li]

http://www.qiji.cn/drupal/node/13319

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The Tree of Diderot and d'Alembert
"Detailed System of Human Knowledge" from the Encyclopédie.

[li]Understanding
[li]Memory
[li]History
[li]Sacred
[li]Ecclesiastical, proper [/li][li]History of Prophesies [/li]
[/li][li]Civil
[li]Civil History, proper
[li]Memoirs [/li][li]Antiquities [/li][li]Complete History [/li]
[/li][li]Literary History [/li]
[/li][li]Natural
[li]Uniformity of Nature
[li]Celestial History
[li]of Meteors [/li][li]of the Earth and the Sea [/li]
[/li][li]History
[li]of Minerals [/li][li]of Vegetables [/li][li]of Animals [/li][li]of the Elements [/li]
[/li]
[/li][li]Irregularities of Nature
[li]Celestial Wonders [/li][li]Unusual Meteors [/li][li]Wonders of the Earth and the Sea [/li][li]Monstrous Minerals [/li][li]Monstrous Vegetables [/li][li]Monstrous Animals [/li][li]Wonders of the Elements [/li]
[/li][li]Uses of Nature
[li]Arts, Crafts, Manufactures
[li]Working and Uses of Gold and Silver
[li]Minter [/li][li]Goldbeater [/li][li]Gold Threader [/li][li]Gold Roller [/li][li]Gold and Silver Smith [/li][li]Planisher [/li][li]Setter, etc. [/li]
[/li][li]Working and Uses of Precious and Semiprecious Stones
[li]Lapidary [/li][li]Diamond Cutter [/li][li]Jeweler [/li]
[/li][li]Working and Uses of Iron
[li]Heavy Forging [/li][li]Locksmithing [/li][li]Edge-Tool Making [/li][li]Arms Manufacture [/li][li]Arquebus (small arms) Manufacture [/li]
[/li][li]Working and Uses of Glass
[li]Glassmaking [/li][li]Plate-Glass [/li][li]Mirror-Worker [/li][li]Optical Manufacturer [/li][li]Glazier, etc. [/li]
[/li][li]Working and Uses of Skin
[li]Tanner [/li][li]Chamois Leather Dresser [/li][li]Skinner [/li][li]Glover, etc. [/li]
[/li][li]Working and Uses of Stone, Plaster, Slate, etc.
[li]Practical Architecture [/li][li]Practical Sculpture [/li][li]Mason [/li][li]Roofer, etc. [/li]
[/li][li]Working and Uses of Silk
[li]Extraction [/li][li]Throwing [/li][li]Products, such as [/li][li]Velvet [/li][li]Brocaded Frabics, etc. [/li]
[/li][li]Working and Uses of Wool
[li]Drapery [/li][li]Hosiery, [/li][li]etc. [/li]
[/li][li]Working and Uses, etc.
[li]etc. [/li]
[/li]
[/li]
[/li]
[/li]
[/li]
[/li][li]Reason
[li]Philosophy
[li]General Metaphysics, or Ontology, or Science of Being in General, of Possibility, of Existence, of Duration, etc. [/li][li]Knowledge of God
[li]Natural Theology [/li][li]Revealed Theology [/li][li]Knowledge of Good and Evil Spirits
[li]Divination [/li][li]Black Magic [/li]
[/li]
[/li][li]Knowledge of the Soul
[li]Rational [/li][li]Sensory [/li]
[/li][li]Pneumatology, or Knowledge of the Spirit, or Special Metaphysics [/li][li]Knowledge of Man
[li]Logic
[li]Art of Thinking
[li]Perception
[li]Knowledge of Ideas [/li]
[/li][li]Judgment
[li]Knowledge of Propositions [/li]
[/li][li]Reasoning
[li]Induction [/li]
[/li][li]Method
[li]Proof
[li]Analysis [/li][li]Synthesis [/li]
[/li]
[/li]
[/li][li]Art of Retaining
[li]Memory
[li]Natural [/li][li]Artificial
[li]Prenotion [/li][li]Emblem [/li]
[/li]
[/li][li]Supplement to Memory
[li]Writing
[li]Alphabet
[li]Arts of Writing, Printing, Reading, Deciphering
[li]Orthography [/li]
[/li]
[/li][li]Numbers [/li]
[/li][li]Printing [/li]
[/li]
[/li][li]Art of Communication
[li]Knowledge of Oratorical Devices
[li]Grammar
[li]Signs
[li]Gesture
[li]Pantomime [/li][li]Declamation [/li]
[/li][li]Characters
[li]Ideograms [/li][li]Hieroglyphs [/li][li]Heraldry or Blazonry [/li]
[/li]
[/li][li]Prosody [/li][li]Composition [/li][li]Syntax [/li][li]Philology [/li][li]Criticism [/li][li]Pedagogy
[li]Choice of Studies [/li][li]Manner of Teaching [/li]
[/li]
[/li]
[/li][li]Knowledge of Oratorical Qualities
[li]Rhetoric [/li][li]Mechanics of Poetry or Versification [/li]
[/li]
[/li]
[/li][li]Ethics
[li]General
[li]Knowledge of Good and Evil in General, of Duties in General, of Virtue, of the Necessity of Being Virtuous [/li]
[/li][li]Particular
[li]Knowledge of Laws or Jurisprudence
[li]Natural
[li]Civil Architecture* [/li]
[/li][li]Economic
[li]Naval Architecture [/li][li]Home and Foreign Trade, [/li][li]by Land, by Sea [/li]
[/li][li]Political
[li]Military Art*
[li]Tactics [/li][li]Fortifications or Military Architecture [/li][li]Military Pyrotechnics [/li]
[/li]
[/li]
[/li]
[/li]
[/li]
[/li][li]Knowledge of Nature
[li]Metaphysics of Bodies, or General Physics of Extension, Impenetrability, Movement, the Void, etc. [/li][li]Mathematics
[li]Pure
[li]Arithmetic
[li]Numerical [/li][li]Algebra
[li]Elementary [/li][li]Infinitesimal
[li]Differential [/li][li]Integral [/li]
[/li]
[/li]
[/li][li]Geometry
[li]Elementary
[li]Military Architecture and Tactics [/li]
[/li][li]Transcendental
[li]Theory of Curves [/li]
[/li]
[/li]
[/li][li]Applied
[li]Mechanics
[li]Statics
[li]Statics, proper [/li][li]Hydrostatics [/li]
[/li][li]Dynamics
[li]Dynamics, proper [/li][li]Ballistics [/li][li]Hydrodynamics
[li]Hydraulics [/li][li]Navigation, Naval Architecture [/li]
[/li]
[/li]
[/li][li]Geometric Astronomy
[li]Cosmography
[li]Uranography [/li][li]Geography [/li][li]Hydrography [/li]
[/li][li]Chronology [/li][li]Gnomonics [/li]
[/li][li]Optics
[li]Optics, proper [/li][li]Dioptrics, Perspective [/li][li]Catoptrics [/li]
[/li][li]Acoustics [/li][li]Pneumatics [/li][li]Art of Conjecturing, Analysis of Chance [/li]
[/li][li]Physico-Mathematics [/li]
[/li][li]Physics (Natural philosophy)
[li]General [/li][li]Particular
[li]Physical Astronomy, Astrology
[li]Juridical Astrology [/li][li]Physical Astrology [/li]
[/li][li]Meteorology [/li][li]Cosmology
[li]Uranology [/li][li]Aerology [/li][li]Geology [/li][li]Hydrology [/li]
[/li][li]Botany
[li]Agriculture [/li][li]Gardening [/li]
[/li][li]Mineralogy [/li][li]Zoology
[li]Anatomy
[li]Simple [/li][li]Comparative [/li]
[/li][li]Physiology [/li][li]Medicine
[li]Hygiene
[li]Hygiene, proper [/li][li]Cosmetics (Orthopedics) [/li][li]Athletics (Gymnastics) [/li]
[/li][li]Pathology [/li][li]Semiotics [/li][li]Therapeutics
[li]Diet [/li][li]Surgery [/li][li]Pharmacy [/li]
[/li]
[/li][li]Veterinary [/li][li]Horsemanship [/li][li]Hunting [/li][li]Fishing [/li][li]Falconry [/li]
[/li][li]Chemistry
[li]Chemistry, proper
[li]Pyrotechnics, Dyeing, etc. [/li]
[/li][li]Metallurgy [/li][li]Alchemy [/li][li]Natural Magic [/li]
[/li]
[/li]
[/li]
[/li]
[/li]
[/li][li]Imagination
[li]Poetry
[li]Profane
[li]Narrative
[li]Epic Poem [/li][li]Madrigal [/li][li]Epigram [/li][li]Novel, etc. [/li]
[/li][li]Music
[li]Theoretical [/li][li]Practical [/li][li]Instrumental [/li][li]Vocal [/li]
[/li][li]Painting [/li][li]Sculpture [/li][li]Engraving [/li][li]Dramatic
[li]Tragedy [/li][li]Comedy [/li][li]Opera [/li][li]Pastoral, etc. [/li]
[/li][li]Parabolic
[li]Allegory [/li]
[/li]
[/li][li]Sacred [/li]
[/li]
[/li]
[/li]

*These divisions can also be referred to the branch of mathematics which deals with their principles.

References

[li]Robert Darnton, "Epistemological angst: From encyclopedism to advertising," in Tore Fr鋘gsmyr, ed., The structure of knowledge: classifications of science and learning since the Renaissance (Berkeley, CA: Office for the History of Science and Technology, University of California, Berkeley, 2001). [/li][li]Preliminary discourse to the Encyclopedia of Diderot, Jean Le Rond d'Alembert, translated by Richard N. Schwab, 1995. ISBN 0-226-13476-8 [/li]