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发表于 2004-9-6 12:27:24
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11 adjectives without nouns
We cannot usually leave out a noun after an adjective.
Poor little boy! (MOT PeeHMei) But there are some exceptions:
1 We sometimes leave out a noun when we are talking about a choice
between two or three different kinds (of car, milk, cigarette, bread, for
example).
Have you got any bread?1 'Do you want white or brown?' 'A pound of butter, please.' I've only got unsalted '
2 We can use superlative adjectives without nouns, if the meaning is clear.
I'm the tallest in my family. Which one shall I get?' The cheapest'
3 We can use some adjectives with the to talk about people in a particular
condition.
He s collecting money for the blind
Note that this structure has a plural 'general' meaning: the blind means 'all blind people1, not 'the blind person' or 'certain blind people'. The most common expressions of this kind are:
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the dead the sick the blind the deaf the rich the poor the unemployed the young the old the handicapped the mentally ill
(In informal speech, we usually say old people, young people etc
instead of the old, the young.)
These expressions cannot be used with a possessive 's.
the problems of the poor OR poor people s problems
(NOT the poor's problems)
> For expressions like the Irish, the French, see 212.
12 adverbs of manner
1 Adverbs of manner say how something happens.
Examples: happily, quickly, terribly, beautifully, badly, well, fast.
Don't confuse these adverbs with adjectives (happy, quick, etc.) We use
adverbs, not adjectives, to modify verbs.
t i
verb + adverb
i i
She sang beautifully (NOT She sang beautiful.)
We'll have to think quickly. (NOT . . . think quick.)
She danced happily into the room. (NOT -She danced happy . . .)
i 1
I don't remember that evening very well. (NOT . . . very good.)
Adverbs of manner can also modify adjectives, past participles, other adverbs, and adverbial phrases.
adverb + adjective
adverb + past participle
It's terribly cold today. This steak is very badly cooked.
(NOT . . . terrible coleh . . .) (NOT . . . bad cooked.)
—I
adverb + adverb
adverb + adverbial phrase
They're playing unusually fast. He was madly in love with her.
(NOT . . . unusual fast) (NOT . . . flwwf . . .)
3 Some adverbs of manner have the same form as adjectives.
Examples are fast (see 127), slow {see 308), loud, wide and hard (see 150).
\> For the use of adjectives with 'copula verbs' like look or seem, see 91.
For adjectives ending in -//, see 8. For the position of adverbs of manner, see 14.6. For spelling rules, see 327.
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13 adverbs: position (general)
Different kinds of adverbs go in different positions in a clause. Here are some general rules: for more details, see 14. (Note: these rules apply both to one-word adverbs and to adverb phrases of two or more words.]
1 Verb and object
We do not usually put adverbs between a verb and its object.
.. . adverb + verb + objecT| | verb I adverb I objeet
/ very much like my job. (NOT / like very much my job.)
f... verb + object + adverb I
She speaks English well. (NOT She speaks well English.)
2 Initial, mid and end position
There are three normal positions for adverbs:
a. initial position (at the beginning of a clause)
Yesterday morning something very strange happened.
b. mid-position (with the verb — for the exact position see 14.2)
My brother completely forgot my birthday.
c. end position (at the end of a clause)
What are you doing tomorrow?
Most adverb phrases (adverbs of two or more words) cannot go in mid-position. Compare:
He got dressed quickly He quickly got dressed. (Quickly can go in end or mid-position.)
He got dressed in a hurry (NOT / le in a hurry got dressed.) (In a hurry cannot go in mid-position.)
3 What goes where?
a initial position
Connecting adverbs (which join a clause to what came before). Time adverbs can also go here (see 14.8).
However, not everybody agreed, (connecting adverb) Tomorrow I've got a meeting in Cardiff, (time adverb)
b mid-position
Focusing adverbs (which emphasize one part of the clause); adverbs of certainty and completeness: adverbs of indefinite frequency; some adverbs of manner (see 14.6).
He's been everywhere — he's even been to Antarctica, (focusing adverb)
21 14
It will probably rain this evening, (certainty) I've almost finished painting the house, (completeness) My boss often travels to America, (indefinite frequency) He quickly got dressed, (manner)
c end-position
Adverbs of manner (how), place (where) and time (when) most often go in end-position. (For details, see 14.9.)
She brushed her hair slowly (manner) The children are playing upstairs (place) / phoned Alex this morning (ti me)
14 adverbs: position (details)
(Read section 13 before you read this.)
1 Connecting adverbs
These adverbs join a clause to what came before. Examples: however, then, next, besides, anyway Position: beginning of clause.
Some of us wanted to change the system; however, not everybody
agreed.
I worked without stopping until five o'clock. Then I went home.
Next, I want to say something about the future.
2 Indefinite frequency
These adverbs say how often something happens. Examples: always, ever, usually, normally, often, frequently,
sometimes, occasionally, rarely, seldom, never Position: mid-position (after auxiliary verbs and am, are, is, was and
were; before other verbs).
| auxiliary verb + adverb j
/ have never seen a whale.
You can always come and stay with us if you want to.
Have you ever played American football?
be + adverb
My boss is often bad-tempered. I'm seldom late for work.
adverb + other verb
We usually go to Scotland in August. It sometimes gets very windy here.
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When there are two auxiliary verbs, these adverbs usually come after the first.
We have never been invited to one of their parties.
She must sometimes have wanted to run away.
Usually, normally, often, frequently, sometimes and occasionally can go at the beginning of a clause for emphasis. Always, never, rarely, seldom and ever cannot.
Sometimes I think I'd like to live somewhere else.
Usually I get up early.
(NOT Always I get up early. Never I get up early.) But always and never can come at the beginning of imperative clauses.
Always look in your mirror before starting to drive.
Never ask her about her marriage.
For the position of adverbs of definite frequency (for example daily, weekly), see 8 below.
3 Focusing adverbs
These adverbs 'point to' or emphasize one part of the clause. Examples: also, just, even, only, mainly, mostly, either, or, neither, nor Position: mid-position (after auxiliary verbs and am, are, is, was and were; before other verbs).
auxiliary verb + adverb
He's been everywhere—he's even been to Antarctica.
i i
/ 'm only going'for two days!
be + adverb
She's my teacher, but she's also my friend.
The people at the meeting were mainly scientists.
adverb + other verb
i • 1
Your bicycle just needs'1 some oif1— that's all.
She neither said thank-you nor looked at me.
Too and as well are focusing adverbs that go in end-position. (See 28.) Either goes in end-position after not. (See 217.)
4 Adverbs of certainty
We use these adverbs to say how sure we are of something. Examples: certainly, definitely, clearly, obviously, probably, really Position: mid-position (after auxiliary verbs and am, are, is, was and were; before other verbs).
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"auxiliary verb + adverb I
It will probably rain this evening.
The train has obviously been delayed.
be + adverb
There is clearly something wrong. She is definitely older than him.
adverb + other verb
He probably thinks you don't like him. I certainly feel better today. Maybe and perhaps usually come at the beginning of a clause.
Perhaps her train is late.
Maybe I'm right, and maybe I'm wrong.
5 Adverbs of completeness
These adverbs say how completely something happens.
Examples: completely, practically, almost, nearly, quite, rather, partly,
sort of, kind of, hardly, scarcely Position: mid-position (after auxiliary verbs and am, are. is, was and
were; before other verbs).
| auxiliary verb + adverb |
/ have completely forgotten your name. Sally can practically read.
It is almost dark.
The house is partly ready.
|^adverb + other verb] / kind of hope she wins.
6 Adverbs of manner
These adverbs say how, in what way, something happens or is done. Examples: angrily, happily, fast, slowly, suddenly, well, badly, nicely,
noisily, quietly, hard, softly Position: most often at the end of a clause, especially if the adverb is
emphasized. Adverbs in -/yean go in mid-position if the
adverb is less important than the verb or object. Initial
position is also possible.
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end-position
He drove off angrily You speak English well. She read the letter slowly.
mid-position
She angrily tore up the letter.
I slowly began to feel better again.
| initial position | Suddenly I had an idea.
In passive clauses, adverbs of manner often go before the past participle. This is very common with adverbs that say how well something is done (for example well, badly).
| adverb + past participle] Everything has been carefully checked I thought it was very well written The conference was badly organized
7 Adverbs of place
These adverbs say where something happens.
Examples: upstairs, around, here, to bed, in London, out of the window Position: at the end of a clause. Initial position also possible, especially in literary writing.
The children are playing upstairs
Come and sit here.
Don't throw orange peel out of the window.
She s sitting at the end of the garden
At the end of the garden there was a very tall tree.
Adverbs of direction (movement) come before adverbs of position.
The children are running around upstairs Here and there often begin clauses. Note the word order.
[ Here/There + verb + subject J
Here comes your bus. (NOT / lere your bus comes.) There's Alice.
Pronoun subjects come directly after here and there.
Here it comes (NOT Here comes it.) There she is. (NOT There is she.)
8 Adverbs of time
These adverbs say when something happens. Examples: today, afterwards, in June, last year, daily, weekly, every year, finally, before, eventually, already, soon, still, last
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Position: mostly in end-position; initial position also common. Some can go in mid-position (see below). Adverbs of indefinite frequency (often, eve:etc) go in mid-position (see paragraph 2).
I'm going to London today Today I'm going to London.
She has a new hair style every week Every week she has a new hair style.
Time adverbs in -/yean also go in mid-position; so can already, soon and last. Still and just only go in mid-position.
So you finally got here.
I've already paid the bill.
We'll soon be home.
When did you last see your father?
I still love you.
She's just gone out.
9 Manner, place, time
At the end of a clause, adverbs usually come in the order manner, place, time (MPT).
P T
/ went thereat once1 (NOT I went at once there.)
p T
Let's go 'to bed early.' (NOT . . . early to bed)
M T
/ worked 'hardyesterday1
M P I
She sang rbeautifullyuin the town halliast night.'
With verbs of movement, we often put adverbs of place before adverbs of manner.
P M
She wenfhome'quickly^
10 Emphatic position
Mid-position adverbs go before emphasized auxiliary verbs or be. Compare:
She has certainly made him angry. She certainly HAS made him angry!
I m really sorry. I really AM sorry.
' olite people always say thank-you.' 7 always DO say thank-you.'
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11 Other positions
Some adverbs can go directly with particular words or expressions that they modify. The most important ate just, almost, only, really, even, right, terribly.
I'll see you in the pub just before eight o'clock.
I've read the book almost to the end.
Only you could do a thing like that. I feel really tired
He always wears a coat, even in summer
She walked right past me. We all thought she sang terribly badly.
15 after (conjunction)
clause + after + clause after + clause, + clause
1 We can use after [o join two clauses.
We can either say: B happened after A happened
OR After A happened, B happened. The meaning is the same: A happened first. Note the comma (,) in the second structure.
/ went to America after I left school. After I left school, I went to America.
He did military service after he went to university.
(= He went to university first.)
After he did military service, he went to university.
(= He did military service first.)
2 In a clause with after, we use a present tense if the meaning is future
(see 343).
I'll telephone you after I arrive. (NOT . . . after I will arrive.)
3 In clauses with after, we often use perfect tenses. We can use the
present perfect (have + past participle) instead of the present, and the
past perfect (had + past participle) instead of the past.
/'// telephone you after I've arrived. After I had left school, I went to America.
There is not usually much difference of meaning between the perfect tenses and the others in this case. Perfect tenses emphasize the idea that one thing was finished before another started.
4 In a formal style, we often use the structure after + -ing
After completing this form, return it to the Director's office. He wrote his first book after visiting Mongolia.
27 16-18
16 after (preposition); afterwards (adverb)
After is a preposition: it can be followed by a noun or an -/ngform. We ate in a restaurant after the film. After seeing the film, we ate in a restaurant
After is not an adverb: we do not use it with the same meaning as afterwards, then or after that.
We went to the cinema and afterwards (then/after that) we ate in a
restaurant.
(NOT . . . and after we ate in a restaurant.)
17 after all
1 /4ftera//gives the idea that one thing was expected, but the opposite
happened. It means 'Although we expected something different'.
I'm sorry. I thought I could come and see you this evening, but I'm not
free after all
I expected to fail the exam, but I passed after all
Position: usually at the end of the clause.
2 We can also use after all to mean 'We mustn't forget that ... ' It is used
to introduce a good reason or an important argument which people
seem to have forgotten.
It's not surprising you're hungry. After all, you didn't have breakfast. I think we should go and see Granny. After all, she only lives ten miles away, and we haven't seen her for ages.
Position: usually at the beginning of the clause.
18 afternoon, evening and night
1 Afternoon changes to evening when it starts getting dark, more or less.
However, it depends on the time of year. In summer, we stop saying
afternoon by six o'clock, even if it is still light. In winter we go on saying
afternoon until at least five o'clock, even if it is dark.
2 Evening changes to night more or less at bedtime. Note that Good
evening usually means 'Hello', and Good night means 'Goodbye' — it is
never used to greet people.
A Good evening Terrible weather, isn't it?
e.-Ves, dreadful.
A:Hasn't stopped raining for weeks. Well, I must be going. Good night
B Good night
19-20 28
19 ages
1 We talk about people's ages with be+ number
He is thirty-five.
She will be twenty-one next year.
or toe + number + years old
He is thirty-five years old.
To ask about somebody's age, say How old are you? {What is your age ? is correct but not usual.)
2 Note the structure \^be+...age\ (without preposition).
When I was your age, I was already working. The two boys are the same age She's the same age as me.
20 ago
1 Position
| expression of time + ago J
I met her six weeks ago (NOT . . . ago six weeks.) It all happened a long time ago How long ago did you arrive?
2 Ago is used with a past tense, not the present perfect.
She phoned a few minutes ago. (NOT She has phoned . . .)
Where's Mike7' 'He was working outside ten minutes ago.
3 The difference between ago and for
Compare:
/ went to Spain six weeks ago ( = six weeks before now)
/ went to Germany for six weeks this summer. ( = / spenf six weeks
in Germany.)
NOW
I went I
I went to Germany to Spain ?
PAST I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I |
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发表于 2004-9-3 12:14:30
