启蒙运动与百科全书
The Enlightment and the Encyclopediahttp://content.answers.com/main/content/wp/en/thumb/6/69/200px-ENC_1-NA5_600px.jpeg
启蒙运动(The Enlightenment)按其字面意思是为黑暗笼罩的地方带去光明。启蒙运动在18世纪中期最早在法国,继而在德国如火如荼地开展开来。百科全书(Encyclopedia, or a systematic dictionary of the sciences, arts, and crafts)是18世纪启蒙运动的象征,一部多卷本(28卷对开本,71818条目,2885幅图版)的畅销图书成为传播启蒙运动思想的最好载体。把当时全部知识(科学、神学、哲学的等等,狄德罗百科全书给出的分类知识树)汇编为一部以字母顺序排列的多卷本图书,并大量出版发行,这本身就是出版史上的一个里程碑事件,从某种角度可说是整理人类有史以来全部信息Google的精神鼻祖。百科全书的主编是大名鼎鼎的狄德罗(1713-1784),副主编是数学家达朗贝尔(1717-1783)。参与的人物很多都是18世纪法国学术界的著名人物(see contributors),比如:伏尔泰、霍尔巴赫、卢梭等。百科全书的编者们还经常引用孟德斯鸠(1685-1755)和布丰的作品,虽然这两位并未直接为百科全书写过什么。启蒙运动的思想家们大多都是崇英分子,他们羡慕英国在科学上的成就和先进的政治制度(摆脱了君权神授的君主立宪制度)。
在达朗贝尔为百科全书所写的绪论中,他宣称:知识来自理性,而不是来自罗马教廷或《启示录》,伟大的秩序化力量是理性,它和记忆、想像等共同发挥作用。所以人们所了解的事情都来自周围的世界以及他自己头脑的活动(狄德罗百科全书绪论)。达朗贝尔和狄德罗把百科全书即当作知识的汇编,又作为哲学的宣言,宣告牛顿和洛克时代的来临。
狄德罗百科全书的版本情况:
巴黎对开本(1751-1772):17卷文字,11卷图版,计划印量:4225部,订价最初为280里佛,最终涨到980里佛。增补卷:4卷文字,1卷图版(1776,1777年印刷); 日内瓦对开本(1771-1776):第一版的再版,印量:2150部,订价:840里佛,但到1777年,由于更便宜的四开本的竞争,价格降低到700里佛甚至更低。 卢卡对开本(1758-1776):大概印了1500部,价格约为737里佛。卢卡共和国的盗版,因此法国的出版商试图将其拒于法国之外。 里窝那对开本(1770-1778):最后一个再版本,印数为1500部,价格仅为574里佛。 日内瓦和纳沙泰尔四开本(1777-1779):包括36卷文字和3卷图版,订价为384里佛。由于受到更便宜的八开本的竞争,1781年价格降为240里佛。四开本共印8525部,但由于大量的损坏,最后仅8011部完整的四开本供销售。 洛桑和伯尔尼的八开本(1778-1782):印数为5500-6000部,订价为225里佛;包括36卷文字,3卷图版。 http://aedilis.irht.cnrs.fr/stage/images/imprimerie.jpg
1789年法国大革命以前,所有出版商一共印制了大约24000部狄德罗百科全书。至少11500部到了法国读者的手上,其中7257部为四开本。
此外还有在狄德罗百科全书基础上修订、扩充的:
《伊韦尔东版百科全书》 (1770-1780):1600部; 《方法百科全书》 (1782-1832):5000部;102分册共337编,四开本166卷半文字,和包含6439幅图版的51编组成。 《方法百科全书》的编者是出版商庞库克,他同时也是销量最大的四开本狄德罗百科全书的出版商。庞库克的百科全书更加专业化,他设想把百科全书编成26种“分学科百科全书”,每种“分百科全书”自身是按字母顺序排列的。根据庞库克在1791年的计划,全书共125又1/2卷,其中科技:50%,人文:25%,社科:13%,其他:12%。
自然史 9卷 医学 8卷 法学 8卷 艺术和工艺 8卷 植物学 5卷 古代文化、神话 5卷 历史 5卷 形而上学、逻辑、伦理和教育 4卷 政治经济和外交 4卷 军事艺术 4卷 建筑 4卷 国民议会 4卷 数学 3卷 化学、冶金、药剂学 3卷 农业 3卷 地理和古代历史 3卷 近代地理 3卷 神学 3卷 哲学 3卷 语法、文学 3卷 财政 3卷 商业 3卷 航海 3卷 制造 3卷 物理 2卷 解剖学 2卷 外科学 2卷 树木和森林 2卷 警察、市政 2卷 美术 2卷 音乐 2卷 矿物 1卷 自然地理 1卷 火炮 1卷 桥梁和公路 1卷 犬猎、狩猎、钓鱼 1卷 百科全书 1卷 数学和物理游戏 1卷 专门艺术 1/2卷 庞库克的撰稿人中学者的比例大幅度提高,比如:植物学家撰写植物学的内容并且自己也以植物学谋生,文人就撰写文学方面的内容并靠文学为生。这反映了自牛顿和洛克之后,学科发展更成熟,学科领域更清晰,学术问题更具体,知识被分成不同的领域,每个领域都形成专门的学术圈子并有几位专家居于支配地位。庞库克百科全书的编撰者就是这些专家,比如:蒙日、拉马克、拉朗德、德·莫尔沃、富克鲁瓦等。
1789年前后,和狄德罗百科全书共同成长起来的法国科学家:拉格朗日(1735-1813)、拉瓦锡(1743-1794)、拉普拉斯(1749—1827)等是当时世界上最杰出的科学家。
参考
Answers: The Enlightment Answers: Encyclopédie Answers: French Encyclopédistes 若古爵士(Louis de Jaucourt),狄德罗百科全书的最多词条贡献者(全部的1/4),并且完全是义务的。 生意就是生意,即使它关乎启蒙 英国的经验主义 http://www.qiji.cn/drupal/node/13319 http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/58/ENC_SYSTEME_FIGURE.jpeg/300px-ENC_SYSTEME_FIGURE.jpeg
The Tree of Diderot and d'Alembert
"Detailed System of Human Knowledge" from the Encyclopédie.
Understanding Memory History Sacred Ecclesiastical, proper History of Prophesies Civil Civil History, proper Memoirs Antiquities Complete History Literary History Natural Uniformity of Nature Celestial History of Meteors of the Earth and the Sea History of Minerals of Vegetables of Animals of the Elements Irregularities of Nature Celestial Wonders Unusual Meteors Wonders of the Earth and the Sea Monstrous Minerals Monstrous Vegetables Monstrous Animals Wonders of the Elements Uses of Nature Arts, Crafts, Manufactures Working and Uses of Gold and Silver Minter Goldbeater Gold Threader Gold Roller Gold and Silver Smith Planisher Setter, etc. Working and Uses of Precious and Semiprecious Stones Lapidary Diamond Cutter Jeweler Working and Uses of Iron Heavy Forging Locksmithing Edge-Tool Making Arms Manufacture Arquebus (small arms) Manufacture Working and Uses of Glass Glassmaking Plate-Glass Mirror-Worker Optical Manufacturer Glazier, etc. Working and Uses of Skin Tanner Chamois Leather Dresser Skinner Glover, etc. Working and Uses of Stone, Plaster, Slate, etc. Practical Architecture Practical Sculpture Mason Roofer, etc. Working and Uses of Silk Extraction Throwing Products, such as Velvet Brocaded Frabics, etc. Working and Uses of Wool Drapery Hosiery, etc. Working and Uses, etc. etc. Reason Philosophy General Metaphysics, or Ontology, or Science of Being in General, of Possibility, of Existence, of Duration, etc. Knowledge of God Natural Theology Revealed Theology Knowledge of Good and Evil Spirits Divination Black Magic Knowledge of the Soul Rational Sensory Pneumatology, or Knowledge of the Spirit, or Special Metaphysics Knowledge of Man Logic Art of Thinking Perception Knowledge of Ideas Judgment Knowledge of Propositions Reasoning Induction Method Proof Analysis Synthesis Art of Retaining Memory Natural Artificial Prenotion Emblem Supplement to Memory Writing Alphabet Arts of Writing, Printing, Reading, Deciphering Orthography Numbers Printing Art of Communication Knowledge of Oratorical Devices Grammar Signs Gesture Pantomime Declamation Characters Ideograms Hieroglyphs Heraldry or Blazonry Prosody Composition Syntax Philology Criticism Pedagogy Choice of Studies Manner of Teaching Knowledge of Oratorical Qualities Rhetoric Mechanics of Poetry or Versification Ethics General Knowledge of Good and Evil in General, of Duties in General, of Virtue, of the Necessity of Being Virtuous Particular Knowledge of Laws or Jurisprudence Natural Civil Architecture* Economic Naval Architecture Home and Foreign Trade, by Land, by Sea Political Military Art* Tactics Fortifications or Military Architecture Military Pyrotechnics Knowledge of Nature Metaphysics of Bodies, or General Physics of Extension, Impenetrability, Movement, the Void, etc. Mathematics Pure Arithmetic Numerical Algebra Elementary Infinitesimal Differential Integral Geometry Elementary Military Architecture and Tactics Transcendental Theory of Curves Applied Mechanics Statics Statics, proper Hydrostatics Dynamics Dynamics, proper Ballistics Hydrodynamics Hydraulics Navigation, Naval Architecture Geometric Astronomy Cosmography Uranography Geography Hydrography Chronology Gnomonics Optics Optics, proper Dioptrics, Perspective Catoptrics Acoustics Pneumatics Art of Conjecturing, Analysis of Chance Physico-Mathematics Physics (Natural philosophy) General Particular Physical Astronomy, Astrology Juridical Astrology Physical Astrology Meteorology Cosmology Uranology Aerology Geology Hydrology Botany Agriculture Gardening Mineralogy Zoology Anatomy Simple Comparative Physiology Medicine Hygiene Hygiene, proper Cosmetics (Orthopedics) Athletics (Gymnastics) Pathology Semiotics Therapeutics Diet Surgery Pharmacy Veterinary Horsemanship Hunting Fishing Falconry Chemistry Chemistry, proper Pyrotechnics, Dyeing, etc. Metallurgy Alchemy Natural Magic Imagination Poetry Profane Narrative Epic Poem Madrigal Epigram Novel, etc. Music Theoretical Practical Instrumental Vocal Painting Sculpture Engraving Dramatic Tragedy Comedy Opera Pastoral, etc. Parabolic Allegory Sacred *These divisions can also be referred to the branch of mathematics which deals with their principles.
References
Robert Darnton, "Epistemological angst: From encyclopedism to advertising," in Tore Fr鋘gsmyr, ed., The structure of knowledge: classifications of science and learning since the Renaissance (Berkeley, CA: Office for the History of Science and Technology, University of California, Berkeley, 2001). Preliminary discourse to the Encyclopedia of Diderot, Jean Le Rond d'Alembert, translated by Richard N. Schwab, 1995. ISBN 0-226-13476-8
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