通过十种语法结构突破GRE阅读难句(2)
吴鹏:上海新东方资深GRE、TOEFL阅读教师。同济大学经济学在读研究生,在大学学习期间,参加了GRE和TOEFL考试均获得高分,并获得Washington大学的奖学金,但最终选择了新东方。同位语结构
同位语的作用是对名词或名词性代词作进一步的解释,一般说来有单词、短语和从句三种形式。同位语从句是名词性从句的一种,置于某些名词之后,如fact, doubt, idea, news, hope, indication, decision, possibility, assumption, suggestion, question等。这种从句通常是由that引导,有时也会由what, why, whether, when等来引导。同位语常用来指出本位语的具体内容或者列举、突出本位语的部分内容,一般置于本位语之后,可以用逗号、冒号或破折号等标点符号与其隔开,也可以不用标点符号。由于同位语从句和定语从句在句子结构上有一些的相似之处,所以容易引起混淆。区分这两种从句的方法是,在同位语从句中that, what, who等连接代(副)词并不充当句子成分,而在定语从句中则充当句子成份。在阅读文章时,考生还应特别注意在句子中,特别是复杂长句中同位语与本位语分割的现象,因为这种分割往往会造成理解上的困难。如在句子“The thought came to him that maybe the enemy had fled the city.”中,thought和它的由that引导的同位语从句被谓语部分came to him分割了。
又如:
There is a growing realization that had Saddam Hussein focused his missile-development programs on this sort of hardware rather than developing the Scud, Desert Storm could have seen targets in Saudi Arabia and Israel bombarded by weapons whose miss distance might have been measured in terms of tens or hundreds of meters rather than kilometers.
【解析】这个句子的主干部分十分简短,即:There is a growing realization. That引导的是虚拟的关于realization的同位语从句,并且在这个从句中还有一个whose引导的定语从句用于修饰weapons。
【翻译】现在人们越来越清楚地认识到,如果萨达姆·侯赛因当初将其导弹发展计划集中在这种硬件而不是发展“飞毛腿”导弹,那么“沙漠风暴”行动中,轰炸沙特阿拉伯和以色列的导弹命中误差距离恐怕就不会以千米而是以几十或几百米测算了。
分词作状语结构
分词包括现在分词和过去分词,它们不仅可以用作形容词,还可以像副词短语那样,说明动词或句子要表达的概念。例如:Then, having ensured that their species will survive, the shrimp die as the last of the water evaporates.(然后,在确保其物种能生存下去之后,虾子就会随着最后一点水蒸发掉而死去。)这个句子中的having ensured that their species will survive相当于when或after,即分词短语用做时间状语。又如:Used economically, one bottle of kerosene will last for at least one month.(用得节省的话,一瓶煤油至少可以用一个月。)这句话中的过去分词表示条件和原因。再如:Granting the achievement to be great, there is still something to be desired.(即使成就是巨大的,仍有一些有待改进的地方。)这句话中的现在分词短语表示让步,此外分词做状语还可以表示伴随等情况。
另外,考生还需注意分词的两种用法和结构:
1) 分词的逻辑主语必须与主句的主语一致,如果出现不一致,则要使用独立主格结构。如:All the money having been spent, they had to look for a part-time job.(钱花光之后,他们不得不找零活干。)
2) with+名词(或代词宾格)+分词(短语)作状语,表示伴随情况。如:With oil expected to be scarce by the end of the century, the European Community has set aside 36 million dollars for hydrogen research over the past four years.(预期本世纪末石油将紧缺,在过去四年里,欧洲共同体准备了3,600万美元用来进行氢气的研究工作。)
下面,我们来看看复杂长句中分词的用法:
Then, maneuvering that iron stove through that doorway, with another mighty grunt Pete just heaved it forward and outward, and it smashed down against her little grassy-patched dirt back yard, the sounds of the crash and the iron cracking open sending her little spotted feist dog and her few any-breed chickens all yelping, squawking and flying.
【解析】maneuvering that iron stove through that doorway是现在分词短语作状语,表示时间。the iron cracking open是独立分词结构,而sending her little spotted feist dog and her few any-breed chichens all yelping, squawking and flying的sending是分词独立结构,而后面的三个现在分词是作为宾语spotted feist dog and her few any-breed chichens的宾语补语。
【翻译】然后,彼特搬着铁炉走出门口,又大喝了一声,举起铁炉向前往外抛去,顿时落在她乱草丛生的小后院,摔成碎片。撞击声和生铁的破裂声把她的小花狗和几只小鸡吓得咯咯大叫,四散飞逃。
又如:
If you haven誸 actively sought a job in the past week and aren誸 available for an immediate start, you are moved from the ranks of the “unemployed” to one of a number of other categories—so those who throw up their hands after a period of looking vanish into a one-line column, becoming just blips in the statistician誷 computer, along with those who haven誸 been able to get out and look for work, or aren誸 in areas where jobs exist, or who don誸 fulfill the other stringent guidelines to be classed as actively looking for work.
【解析】这个句子很长,但其真正的主句在破折号之前。其主句中if引导了一个表示条件的从句,而破折号之后的内容用于进一步解释one of a number of other categories,who引导的是those的定语从句,becoming just blips in the statistician's computer这个现在分词作为状语用于表示结果,和接下来的伴随状况,along with those who...是一复杂的短语用于状语,用以进一步说明和对比。
【翻译】如果你在过去的一周里没有积极寻找工作,并且不能马上开始上班,他们就会把你从“失业者”群体转到许多其他类别中的一类,所以那些找了一段时间的工作以后感到绝望的人以及那些没能出去找工作或不在有工作的地区或是因不符合其他一些严格标准而没能算在积极寻找工作者之列的人一道统统消失掉,变成统计学家电脑屏幕上的区区亮点。
否定句结构
在英语中,否定句的否定范围不同,语义也会发生相应的变化,所以遇到否定句时,考生一定要找准否定的对象,分清否定的范围。例如:The ambassador did not leave London to take up an appointment in Africa.可以翻译为:1)大使没有离开伦敦到非洲去就职。2)大使不是为了到非洲就职而离开了伦敦的。面对这种情况,考生只有根据上下文才能做出正确的理解,排除歧义。此外,从语法角度来看,not与动词谓语连用时,是否定谓语动词的,而no与名词连用时,是否定名词的。但从否定重心来看有时却并非如此。如Don誸 give up because it is difficult.只能理解为“不要因为困难就放弃。”此外,不定代词中的every, all, both以及副词always, quite在与否定词结合时,不是全部否定,而是部分否定,不是“全不是”而是“不全是”。这些都是考生在阅读时需要注意的问题。例如:
But we can hardly guess what the world will look like to men and women with several generations of communism behind them, who take the brotherhood of man for granted, not as an ideal to be aimed at, but a fact of life, and yet know that this brotherhood was only achieved by ghastly struggles.
【解析】在这个句子中,hardly表示不完全否定,what引导的是guess的宾语从句,而who引导的是them作先行词的定语从句,not as an ideal to be aimed at, but a fact of life这里用到了not... but...不是……而是……的结构,yet表示轻微的转折,在know后的that引导的是其宾语从句。
【翻译】但对曾有过几代共产主义思想的人们来说,将来的世界看上去将是什么样子,人们还很难作出推测。现在人们总是把他们之间的手足之情看作是理所当然的事,认为生活本身就是这样,而不是当作理想的目标来看待。然而他们知道这种手足之情只有通过巨大的努力才能得到。
比较结构
在英语语法中,表示比较的结构有以下几种:
1) 如要表达人与人,事与事等之间的相似,可以用as或like。例如:
From this motive I began to think seriously of matrimony, and choose my wife, as she did her wedding gown, not for a fine glossy surface, but such qualities as would wear well. 在此句中as she did her wedding gown就是用as表示相似。如此的用法还有so do I, so am I, neither/nor do I。
2)当要表达事物之间在某一方面一样时,可用as... as...(后接形用词或副词)和as much/many... as...(后接名词或动词)结构。例如:Learn as much as you can about what to expect in the press conference.
3)当表达事物之间的差别时,可采用more (...than)或less (...than),后可接形容词、副词、动词或名词。例如:A general-purpose computer is regarded less as an electric calculating machine than as a capable assistant to human beings. (通用电子计算机,与其说是电动计算器,不如说是人的得力助手。)需要注意的是在这种结构中more+形容词或副词并不构成比较级。因此,不能以形容词或副词比较级的后缀形式出现。此外这种结构后面还跟介词短语,如:To some, this may sound more like medieval.
下面我们来看看比较结构在复杂长句中的应用,例如:
The mathematician will usually be greeted with some polite incredulity when he insists that Einstein was a very great physicist who never pretended to prove mathematical results of any significance; or when he states that he will very seldom have to write down any numerical operation in his professional life; or when he points out that dozens of fat books on mathematics never use explicitly any number greater than 4.
【解析】that引导的是insists的宾语从句,在这个句子中有三个when引导的状语从句表示时间在那时,who引导的是关于great physicist的定语从句,states后的that引导的是它的宾语从句,points out后面的that引导的是它的宾语从句, greater than这是个比较级。
【翻译】当数学家坚持认为爱因斯坦是一位伟大的物理学家,他从未自称论证过任何重要的数学成果时;或者当他声称他很少需要在一生中进行任何数学运算时;或者当他指出一大堆数学书从未直接用过大于4的数目时,这个数学家通常会受到某种有礼貌的怀疑。
it的用法
在英语中,it在句子中除了可以用来表示气候、天气、温度、时间、地点和距离等外,还可用于强调句型中。强调的部分可以是主语、宾语或副词短语等等。例如:It was the Minister of Education that my mother threw an egg at yesterday.(我母亲昨天向教育大臣扔了一个臭鸡蛋。)但是其一般不强调谓语。
此外,it还可以在句子中充当形式主语或形式宾语。例如:It was very generous of you to lend them your new car for their holiday.(你把新车借给他们去度假,真是慷慨大方。)这个例句中,it代替不定式短语to lend them your new car for their holiday作了形式主语。并且从这个例句可以看出,当it充当形式主语或宾语时,后面被代替的真正主语或宾语通常是不定式短语、动名词短语或名词性从句。当不定式短语作主语,特别是主语较长而谓语较短时,通常用it作形式主语,而把真正的主语放在谓语后面,形成“it+系动词(多为be)+表语(形容词、名词等)+to do sth.”的结构,这是it作形式主语常用结构之一。有时若需要给出不定式的逻辑主语,则可以使用“for+名词(或代词宾格)+to do sth.”的结构。
在主语从句中,特别是主语从句较长时,也常常用it作形式主语,而把主语从句置于句子的后部,形成“it+系动词(多为be)+that从句”的结构。需要注意的是,在这种结构中有些形容词要求主语从句使用虚拟语气,即主语从句的谓语采用“should+动词原形”的形式,当然在美语中也常常省略should,直接使用动词原形。这类形容词一般有:imperative, advisable, desirable, essential, important, natural, necessary, preferable, urgent等等。此外还有一种it作形式主语的结构是“it+连系动词(多为be)+过去分词+ that从句”。例如:
This is nonsense but with it some organs of the popular Press played upon the emotions of their readers so successfully that many candidates for Parliament were afraid to support abolition for fear of losing votes and the result was the muddle-headed Homicide Act of 1957 which made murder with robbery a capital crime and allowed the poisoner to escape the gallows.
【解析】with it 这个介宾短语中的it指的是this指代的内容,so... that的结构表示“如此的怎么样以至于怎么样了”,即that引导的句子是结果状语,which引导的定语从句是用于修饰Homicide Act of 1957的。
【翻译】真是不可理喻,大众媒体成功地玩弄读者的感情,以至于不少国会候选人不敢支持废除死刑以免失去选票,结果通过了愚蠢不堪的1957年杀人罪法案,这一法案把抢劫杀人定为死刑,而让放毒者逃脱绞刑。
以上是笔者精心选择和讲解的十种语法结构,通过熟练掌握这十种语法结构,我们就能够修炼好突破GRE难句的内功。当然,考生要想顺利通过考试,不仅要有深厚的内功,还应该在阅读时有所取舍。换句话说,就是要学会把主要的精力放在作者真正要表达的意思上,而不要过多纠缠那些无关紧要的内容。例如以下是在GRE阅读中最常见的七类句型:
(1) as well as
(2) not only... but also
(3) not... but
(4) rather than
(5) while, although, though, albeit
(6) do may have it is true that
(7) far less,no less than
显然在阅读as well as句型时,应该把阅读的重点放在as well as之前,因为作者真正想要强调的内容在其前面;而碰到not only...but also以及not...but这样的句型时,我们却应该将阅读的重点放在but之后;rather than表明的是一种强对比,所以我们要重点读出前后对比的事物之间的不同特征;while, although, though, albeit, do, may, have, it is true that引导的都是表示让步关系的句型,所以我们应该迅速浏览让步的内容,而将注意力集中在转折后的内容上;最后对于far less,no less than句型我们则只要知道far less表示否定,而no less than表示肯定就可以了。
最后,笔者要送给所有在考G路上跋涉的考生一句话:Nothing more than diligence can predict your success!
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